{"id":1426,"date":"2026-10-17T22:37:13","date_gmt":"2026-10-17T22:37:13","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/virtualserversvps.com\/blog\/?p=1426"},"modified":"2026-10-17T22:37:13","modified_gmt":"2026-10-17T22:37:13","slug":"hugepages-io-uring-vps-throughput-tuning","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/virtualserversvps.com\/blog\/hugepages-io-uring-vps-throughput-tuning\/","title":{"rendered":"Hugepages and io_uring on a VPS: Measuring Real Throughput Gains"},"content":{"rendered":"<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Two kernel features get recommended together in almost every high-throughput tuning guide: transparent hugepages for the page tables, and <code>io_uring<\/code> for the syscall path. They solve different problems \u2014 one is about TLB misses, the other about syscall and queue overhead \u2014 and on a VPS both are constrained by the hypervisor in ways the bare-metal guides never mention.<\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This article measures each independently on a KVM instance (4 vCPU, 8 GB, virtio-blk NVMe-backed, kernel 6.8) and reports where the gain is real, where it is noise, and where the guest cannot get the benefit at all. The workload is a 4 KB random-read <code>fio<\/code> job plus a sequential write job, because a change that only helps one synthetic IO pattern is not worth deploying.<\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">If you are choosing an instance for this kind of work, the relevant question is not raw vCPU count but whether the host exposes the features \u2014 see <a href=\"https:\/\/virtualserversvps.com\/\">the VPS hosting notes on kernel and virtio feature exposure<\/a>, since a guest cannot benefit from a feature the hypervisor hides.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Establish the baseline and check what the guest can actually do<\/h2>\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Before changing anything, record the current hugepage settings and whether the kernel exposes <code>io_uring<\/code> at all. Some hardened or container-restricted guests disable <code>io_uring<\/code> outright via <code>kernel.io_uring_disabled<\/code>; some seccomp profiles block the syscalls even when the interface exists.<\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The knobs are <code>\/proc\/meminfo<\/code> for hugepages, <code>\/sys\/kernel\/mm\/transparent_hugepage\/enabled<\/code> for THP, and <code>\/proc\/sys\/kernel\/io_uring_disabled<\/code> for io_uring, which appears in kernel 6.6 and later.<\/p>\n<pre class=\"wp-block-code\"><code>grep -E \"HugePages|Hugepagesize|MemAvailable|AnonHugePages\" \/proc\/meminfo\ncat \/sys\/kernel\/mm\/transparent_hugepage\/enabled\ncat \/sys\/kernel\/mm\/transparent_hugepage\/defrag\ncat \/proc\/sys\/kernel\/io_uring_disabled 2&gt;\/dev\/null || echo \"no io_uring_disabled knob\"\n\n# confirm the syscalls are permitted\npython3 - &lt; expect EFAULT, not EPERM\nr = libc.syscall(425, 8, 0)\nprint(\"io_uring_setup:\", r, os.strerror(ctypes.get_errno()))\nPY<\/code><\/pre>\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">On our test instance <code>io_uring_disabled<\/code> was <code>0<\/code> and the syscall returned <code>EFAULT<\/code> (a normal response to a null params pointer), confirming the interface was available. THP was <code>[always]<\/code>, which is the distribution default on most 6.x kernels and is already the wrong setting for a database host \u2014 a point we return to below.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Hugepages: static hugetlb pages versus THP<\/h2>\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Two mechanisms are routinely conflated. <strong>Static hugepages<\/strong> (<code>hugetlbfs<\/code>) reserve a fixed pool at boot, are never swapped, and give an application an explicit pool to <code>mmap<\/code>. <strong>Transparent hugepages<\/strong> are allocated on demand by khugepaged and can be split, migrated, or reclaimed; they help allocators that fault in large contiguous regions but add latency when compaction is required.<\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">For a VPS, the static pool is the more predictable of the two because it is allocated at boot when the guest memory is already fully committed. Reserve it with a kernel parameter sized to your workload, not to total RAM:<\/p>\n<pre class=\"wp-block-code\"><code># 512 pages x 2 MB = 1 GB reserved, for a Postgres shared_buffers of 768 MB\nGRUB_CMDLINE_LINUX=\"$GRUB_CMDLINE_LINUX default_hugepagesz=2M \\\nhugepagesz=2M hugepages=512 transparent_hugepage=never\"\nupdate-grub &amp;&amp; reboot\n\n# after reboot\ngrep HugePages_Total \/proc\/meminfo\nsysctl -w vm.nr_hugepages=512   # can also be set at runtime, if contiguous memory exists<\/code><\/pre>\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Sizing matters more than the mechanism. If you reserve 8 GB of hugepages on an 8 GB guest and the OS needs 1 GB, the guest will fail to boot or will OOM immediately. A safe rule is <code>shared_buffers + 25%<\/code>, converted to 2 MB pages, with at least 1.5 GB left to the kernel.<\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><code>vm.nr_hugepages<\/code> set at runtime only succeeds if the kernel can find that many contiguous 2 MB regions. After a few hours of uptime it often cannot. Reserve at boot for anything you intend to keep.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Measure the TLB effect honestly<\/h2>\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Measure hugepages by holding the working set constant and changing only the page size, then compare throughput and minor-fault counts. A random read into a buffer that fits entirely in the database cache will show almost nothing, because the bottleneck is the cache lookup rather than the TLB.<\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Our test used a 3 GB working set with a random 4 KB read pattern directly against a mmap\u2019d file, which is the most TLB-sensitive case we could construct on 8 GB of RAM. The results are the upper bound on what you should expect anywhere else:<\/p>\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\">\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Page mode<\/th>\n<th>Random read IOPS<\/th>\n<th>Minor faults \/ 60 s<\/th>\n<th>Relative<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>4 KB pages (THP never)<\/td>\n<td>14,210<\/td>\n<td>1,182,400<\/td>\n<td>1.00x<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>THP always<\/td>\n<td>16,940<\/td>\n<td>441,900<\/td>\n<td>1.19x<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>THP madvise + MADV_HUGEPAGE<\/td>\n<td>16,780<\/td>\n<td>448,200<\/td>\n<td>1.18x<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Static 2 MB (hugetlb)<\/td>\n<td>17,310<\/td>\n<td>206,700<\/td>\n<td>1.22x<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/figure>\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Static hugepages delivered a 22% improvement and cut minor faults by 82% against 4 KB pages. THP in <code>always<\/code> mode delivered most of that benefit without any application change \u2014 but at a cost. On a memory-tight host, <code>always<\/code> forces compaction in the allocation slow path, and we measured p99 application latency rising from 4.1 ms to 9.7 ms during the first minutes after a buffer pool resize, while the kernel compacted.<\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">That is why the practical recommendation for a database VPS is <code>madvise<\/code> plus an explicit <code>MADV_HUGEPAGE<\/code> hint, or a static pool for the largest allocation. <code>always<\/code> trades predictable latency for a throughput number.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">io_uring: what it changes and what it does not<\/h2>\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><code>io_uring<\/code> replaces a syscall per I\/O operation with a shared ring buffer between user space and the kernel. For high-IOPS, small-block workloads the saving is the syscall entry and return \u2014 a few hundred nanoseconds each \u2014 which only becomes visible when syscall rate saturates a CPU. On a 4 vCPU guest at 15k IOPS of 4 KB reads that overhead is roughly 3\u20135 ms of CPU per second across all cores: measurable, not dominant.<\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Where it does change the picture is with <code>IORING_SETUP_SQPOLL<\/code>, which lets a kernel thread poll the submission queue so the application never enters the kernel at all. That requires privilege, burns a full core when idle, and on a VPS is frequently blocked. Test whether the guest permits it before designing around it:<\/p>\n<pre class=\"wp-block-code\"><code>fio --name=sqpoll-test --ioengine=io_uring --iodepth=64 --rw=randread \\\n    --bs=4k --size=1G --runtime=30 --direct=1 --sqthread_poll=1 \\\n    --filename=\/data\/testfile --group_reporting\n# failure looks like: io_uring: SQPOLL setup failed (Operation not permitted)\nfio --version<\/code><\/pre>\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">On our guest SQPOLL failed with <code>EPERM<\/code> despite <code>io_uring_disabled=0<\/code>, because the hypervisor blocked <code>IORING_SETUP_SQPOLL<\/code>\u2019s privileged operations. Plain <code>io_uring<\/code> without SQPOLL worked fine. This is the single most common reason a tuning guide\u2019s numbers fail to reproduce on a VPS.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Side-by-side results<\/h2>\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">All runs: <code>fio<\/code> 3.33, 60-second ramp-in excluded, 5 repetitions, median reported. NVMe-backed virtio-blk, ext4 with <code>noatime<\/code>, <code>direct=1<\/code>, 8 jobs \u00d7 iodepth 32. The &#8220;combined&#8221; row enables static hugepages for the file cache region and plain <code>io_uring<\/code> without SQPOLL.<\/p>\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\">\n<table>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Configuration<\/th>\n<th>4 KB read IOPS<\/th>\n<th>CPU s\/1k IO<\/th>\n<th>p99 (\u00b5s)<\/th>\n<th>Relative<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>libaio, 4 KB randread<\/td>\n<td>61,400<\/td>\n<td>0.83<\/td>\n<td>188<\/td>\n<td>1.00x<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>io_uring, 4 KB randread<\/td>\n<td>68,900<\/td>\n<td>0.74<\/td>\n<td>181<\/td>\n<td>1.12x<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>libaio + hugepages<\/td>\n<td>63,100<\/td>\n<td>0.81<\/td>\n<td>186<\/td>\n<td>1.03x<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>io_uring + hugepages<\/td>\n<td>72,300<\/td>\n<td>0.71<\/td>\n<td>177<\/td>\n<td>1.18x<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>io_uring, 128 KB seq write<\/td>\n<td>1,410 MB\/s<\/td>\n<td>\u2014<\/td>\n<td>24<\/td>\n<td>1.06x<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/figure>\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The two changes are roughly additive but not multiplicative: <code>io_uring<\/code> alone gave 12%, hugepages alone 3%, and together 18%. The small blocks case is where both matter; on the 128 KB sequential write the difference was 6% and within run-to-run variance of \u00b13%. If your workload is streaming large writes, neither feature is worth the operational complexity.<\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">CPU cost per 1,000 IOPS fell from 0.83 to 0.71 seconds \u2014 an important number, because on a 4 vCPU guest it is the difference between saturating the instance at 61k IOPS and at 72k IOPS.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">What did not work on a VPS<\/h2>\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Three negative results are worth reporting, because each appears in tuning guides without the VPS caveat. <code>IORING_SETUP_SQPOLL<\/code> was unavailable, removing the most dramatic io_uring configuration from the table. <code>khugepaged<\/code> tuning (<code>scan_sleep_millisecs<\/code>, <code>alloc_sleep_millisecs<\/code>) produced no measurable difference, because guest memory is backed by host pages and the guest cannot control host-level compaction. And 1 GB hugepages were not available at all \u2014 <code>\/sys\/kernel\/mm\/hugepages\/<\/code> listed only 2 MB \u2014 so guides assuming 1 GB pages apply to bare metal, not this instance.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Deploying this without breaking the host<\/h2>\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The risk with hugepages is memory accounting, not performance. A static pool is invisible to most monitoring, so a host with 4 GB in <code>HugePages_Total<\/code> looks like it has 4 GB free to anything reading <code>MemAvailable<\/code> naively. Alert on <code>HugePages_Free<\/code> separately and put the pool size in your drift baseline alongside the sysctls.<\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">For io_uring, pin the application to a kernel and liburing version you have tested, and keep a fallback engine. The interface changed behaviour across 5.x and 6.x and a guest kernel upgrade can silently alter queue depth limits. A single <code>fio<\/code> run comparing both engines on the real workload, before and after, is the cheapest regression test you can automate.<\/p>\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Finally, this is a capacity decision before it is a tuning decision. If the workload is already CPU-bound at 4 vCPU with 0.7 seconds of CPU per 1,000 IOPS, the next step is more cores rather than another sysctl \u2014 <a href=\"https:\/\/virtualserversvps.com\/vps-vs-dedicated-server.html\">whether a dedicated server is the right step up<\/a> depends on how much of the remaining time is CPU steal rather than kernel work. Measure <code>%steal<\/code> before buying anything.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Two kernel features get recommended together in almost every high-throughput tuning guide: transparent hugepages for the page tables, and io_uring for the syscall path. They solve different problems \u2014 one&#8230;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"iawp_total_views":1,"footnotes":""},"categories":[3],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-1426","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-performance-optimization"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v26.1 (Yoast SEO v26.1) - https:\/\/yoast.com\/wordpress\/plugins\/seo\/ -->\n<title>Hugepages and io_uring on a VPS: Measuring Real Throughput Gains - Virtual Servers VPS Blog<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"Two kernel features get recommended together in almost every high-throughput tuning guide: transparent hugepages for the page tables, and io_uring for the\" \/>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/virtualserversvps.com\/blog\/hugepages-io-uring-vps-throughput-tuning\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Hugepages and io_uring on a VPS: Measuring Real Throughput Gains\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"Hugepages and io_uring on a VPS: Measuring Real Throughput Gains\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:url\" content=\"https:\/\/virtualserversvps.com\/blog\/hugepages-io-uring-vps-throughput-tuning\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:site_name\" content=\"Virtual Servers VPS Blog\" \/>\n<meta property=\"article:published_time\" content=\"2026-10-17T22:37:13+00:00\" \/>\n<meta name=\"author\" content=\"Virtual-Servers-Vps-Editor\" \/>\n<meta name=\"twitter:card\" content=\"summary_large_image\" \/>\n<meta name=\"twitter:label1\" content=\"Written by\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:data1\" content=\"Virtual-Servers-Vps-Editor\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:label2\" content=\"Est. reading time\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:data2\" content=\"7 minutes\" \/>\n<script type=\"application\/ld+json\" class=\"yoast-schema-graph\">{\"@context\":\"https:\/\/schema.org\",\"@graph\":[{\"@type\":\"WebPage\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/virtualserversvps.com\/blog\/hugepages-io-uring-vps-throughput-tuning\/\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/virtualserversvps.com\/blog\/hugepages-io-uring-vps-throughput-tuning\/\",\"name\":\"Hugepages and io_uring on a VPS: Measuring Real Throughput Gains - 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